The Transactional Nature of Marriage and Sex: Power within a Capitalistic Framework, with Marriage a Socially Sanctioned Form of Prostitution
How do Edith Wharton and Nawal El Saadawi explore the transactional nature of marriage and sex through their use of narrative voice and cultural context in The House of Mirth and Woman at Point Zero?
J. M.
The subjugation and marginalization of women have been frequently justified by existent societal systems and cultural standards. Female oppression, referring to the systematic limitation of women's rights and freedoms based on gender, is prevalent across various cultural contexts and remains prevalent in modern-day society. Edith Wharton and Nawal El Saadawi, two writers from differing cultural backgrounds, offer poignant examinations of female oppression through their respective works.
Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth tells the story of Lily Bart, a beautiful woman navigating New York’s elite circles in the early 20th century. Pressured to secure a wealthy marriage, Lily's hesitation and refusal to marry for money lead her to miss opportunities, incur gambling debts, and become entangled in social scandals. Courted by wealthy men like Percy Gryce and Gus Trenor, as well as the earnest but poor Lawrence Selden, Lily’s reputation suffers, resulting in her eventual ostracization. Wharton, an insider of this elite society, critiques its opulence and moral decay through Lily’s tragic journey.
Similar to this, Nawal El Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero tells the story of Firdaus, a woman awaiting execution in a Cairo prison for the murder of a pimp. Through first-person narration, Firdaus recounts her life, marked by an abusive childhood, an oppressive marriage, and exploitation in the workforce. Seeking control over her destiny, she turns to prostitution, finding a semblance of economic independence but facing continuous exploitation. Her quest for genuine love fails, leading her to kill a pimp in self-defense. Despite being offered a reduced sentence if she shows remorse, Firdaus chooses death over a return to subjugation, exposing the systemic oppression of women in Egyptian society.
Although vastly different in content, setting, and narrative style, Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth and Nawal El Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero are united by their exploration of female oppression, offering powerful commentaries on its universal nature. Specifically, both novels delve into the economic and transactional aspects of marriage and sex, presenting power within a capitalist framework where marriage is depicted as a socially sanctioned form of prostitution. These economic relationships are portrayed as societal norms, and both authors use their protagonists' defiance of these norms to reveal the detrimental consequences of rejecting the status quo. This serves as a broader critique, not only of patriarchal systems but also of those who uphold and fail to challenge them.
This notion that all relationships are rooted in financial control can be explored through the lens of French existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir’s understanding of the “marriage market.” In her work The Second Sex (1949), De Beauvoir is concerned with the economic aspect of the feminine condition, identifying that true equality will never be reached as long as this transactional nature persists. She says, “As long as a perfect economic equality [between men and women] is not achieved in society and as long as the mores authorize a woman to take advantage as a wife or mistress of the privileges possessed by some men, the dream of a passive success will always persist and so will limit women’s own accomplishments.” De Beauvoir’s observation underscores the idea that societal structures allow women to exploit their position as wives or mistresses, thereby perpetuating their subjugation. By benefiting from the economic privileges afforded by men, women sustain the very systems that oppress them. De Beauvoir critiques this passive acceptance of societal norms, arguing that it “limits women’s own accomplishments.” De Beauvoir’s theory can be used as an interpretive lens that reveals the harmful nature of transactional relationships and critiques the passive acceptance of these norms. By allowing economic dependence to define their existence, women become complicit in their own oppression, which ultimately hinders any progress toward genuine gender equality.
Transactional Nature of Marriage in The House of Mirth
Edith Wharton’s portrayal of New York’s high society in The House of Mirth serves as a powerful allegory for the broader constraints imposed upon women by patriarchal systems. Specifically, Wharton explores Simone de Beauvoir’s theory of the “marriage market” as a means for women to secure financial stability and social status, illustrating how societal pressure shapes characters such as Lily Bart. Specifically, Lily, along with the other female characters, is pushed by society to marry solely for financial gain. This is particularly evident at the beginning of the novel through the conversation between Lily Bart and her acquaintance Lawrence Selden:
“Isn’t marriage your vocation? Isn’t it what you’re all brought up for?”
She sighed. “I suppose so. What else is there?”
“Exactly. And so why not take the plunge and have it over?”
She shrugged her shoulders. “You speak as if I ought to marry the first man who came along.”
“I didn’t mean to imply that you are as hard put to it as that. But there must be someone with the requisite qualifications.”
She shook her head wearily. “I threw away one or two good chances when I first came out—I suppose every girl does, and you know I am horribly poor—and very expensive. I must have a great deal of money.”
The dialogue between Lily and Selden highlights the transactional nature of the marriage that Lily faces, where her beauty and social status are expected to be leveraged for financial security. Selden’s question, “Isn’t marriage your vocation? Isn’t it what you’re all brought up for?” directly underscores the societal pressure on women like Lily to view marriage as their primary goal and means of advancement. The notion that marriage is what Lily, along with other women, are “brought up for” highlights how deeply entrenched and normalized these patriarchal systems are within society. Lily’s response, acknowledging that she “must have a great deal of money,” reveals her awareness of the financial necessity behind marriage, presenting this as the social norm. Following this conversation, Selden asks “What’s become of Dillworth?” to which Lily responds “Oh, his mother was frightened—she was afraid I should have all the family jewels reset.” Selden’s response, “The very thing you are marrying for!” reflects the collective societal understanding that money and financial value are the sole factors of a successful marriage, rather than true emotional interest.
Throughout the novel, Lily is acutely aware of the societal expectation that she must leverage her beauty to marry a wealthy suitor, yet she struggles with the notion of reducing herself to a mere object in a transactional relationship. During a conversation with Selden, Lily says, “We are expected to be pretty and well-dressed till we drop—and if we can’t keep it up alone, we have to go into partnership.” Lily’s awareness of this societal norm is juxtaposed with her resistance to fully conform to it, creating a profound conflict within her character. Lily finds herself trapped between her desire to maintain her place in this upper-class society and her own moral core. On one hand, she understands that to secure her social standing, she must engage in the same materialistic ideals that define her peers’ lives. On the other hand, she is deeply uncomfortable with the notion of marrying solely for financial security, as it reduces her to a mere participant in this system of display.
This inner turmoil is further revealed through Wharton's use of a third-person omniscient narrator throughout the novel. The narrator offers readers a window into Lily’s thoughts, revealing her fears, desires, and moral dilemmas as she navigates this transactional world. Specifically, the narration highlights Lily’s hesitance to marry the wealthy Percy Gryce, despite the inherent pressures from a society motivated by money. Lily is aware that if she marries Mr. Gryce, she will have “the one possession in which he took sufficient pride to spend money on”, and “[s]he would be able to arrange her life as she pleased, to soar into that empyrean of security where creditors cannot penetrate.” However, the use of a focalized third-person omniscient narrator reveals Lily’s defiance of this expectation due to her true interest in Lawrence Selden, despite his lower financial status and class. When describing Lily and Selden’s relationships, the narrator says, “The peculiar charm of her feeling for Selden was that she understood it; she could put her finger on every link of the chain that was drawing them together.” This contrasts the description of her relationship with Percy Gryce as “marrying a great deal of money.” The juxtaposition between these descriptions highlights the conflict Lily faces in marrying for a true connection, or for financial gain as society accepts. Overall, this narrative style reveals Lily's internal conflict between pursuing financial security through a marriage of convenience and her desire for a genuine emotional connection with someone like Lawrence Selden.
In contrast to Lily Bart’s idealistic and ultimately tragic view of marriage, characters like Bertha Dorset and Judy Trenor embody the pragmatic, transactional nature of relationships. Both characters use their marriages as tools for social maneuvering. They are described as those “whose husband showered money on [them]” to maintain their influence and power within society. Additionally, it is illustrated that “Society did not turn away from [them], it simply drifted by, preoccupied and inattentive, letting her feel, to the full measure of [their] humbled pride, how completely [they] had been the creature of its favor.” This reveals how Bertha and Judy remain within the bounds of societal norms by utilizing their marriages as a means to sustain their power and relevance.
Both women navigate the social hierarchy with a clear understanding of the transactional nature of their roles, using their beauty, sexuality, and marital status as a means to an end. Their approach stands in stark contrast to Lily’s more romantic and idealistic notions of love and marriage, even if this requires defying society's normalities. While Bertha and Judy succeed in maintaining their positions within society through calculated actions, Lily’s refusal to fully embrace this transactional approach leads to her social and financial ruin, and eventually her tragic ending. Through the ambiguous yet detrimental ending, Wharton critiques what happens to those who deviate from the status quo set in place. Specifically, the ambiguity of Lily’s death, whether it was an accidental overdose or a deliberate suicide, reflects the profound despair and hopelessness she feels as a result of her inability to conform to the societal expectations placed upon her. As Selden gazes upon Lily’s lifeless body, he reflects on the “impalpable barrier” that had always existed between them, a barrier that has now “hardened to adamant.” This imagery suggests that even in death, the social and moral constraints that govern Lily's life continue to separate her from true fulfillment and connection. Through this, Wharton critiques the harsh realities of a society that punishes those who dare to challenge the status quo, as Lily does by refusing to fully embrace the transactional nature of relationships.
The contrast between the fate of characters such as Bertha or Judy, and Lily Bart, serves as a broader critique of those who passively accept these norms. This idea can be connected to Simone de Beauvoirs concept of the “marriage market”. She argues that as long as societal norms authorize a woman to seek advantage through roles like wife or mistress, as characters like Bertha and Judy do, “the dream of a passive success will always persist and so will limit women’s own accomplishments.” So, while Bertha and Judy may appear to have more successful outcomes than Lily Bart, their success is rooted in a passive acceptance of societal norms that ultimately reinforce and perpetuate harmful patriarchal systems. This passive acceptance is evident through their use of marriage as a tool for social maneuvering, which allows these systems to remain. Therefore, through Lily’s lack of passive acceptance, Edith Wharton reveals that without individuals willing to challenge the status quo, the cycle of female oppression and gender-based discrimination will persist. Wharton suggests that true progress can only be reached when these norms are questioned and dismantled, rather than passively accepted.
Transactional Nature of Sex in Woman at Point Zero
In comparison to Edith Wharton's The House of Mirth, Nawal El Saadawis Woman at Point Zero presents a more violent and visceral interpretation of Simone de Beauvoir’s theory of the “marriage market”. In Woman at Point Zero, this theory is not merely a critique of societal norms but is starkly embodied in the protagonist Firdaus’s life, where marriage is a literal marketplace in which she is bought, sold, and exploited. The “market” in El Saadawi’s narrative is a battleground where women like Firdaus must fight for survival, often through violent means. This contrasts with Lily Bart’s struggle in The House of Mirth, which, while tragic, remains within the boundaries of social decorum. By presenting this theory in a raw and unfiltered manner, El Saadawi exposes the underlying violence of a system that dehumanizes women, making her interpretation far more direct and harrowing than Wharton’s more subdued social critique.
In Woman at Point Zero, the protagonist Firdaus' life is marked by a series of exploitative relationships that highlight the transactional nature of marriage and sex within a deeply patriarchal society. Firdaus is initially forced into an early marriage to an older man named Sheikh Mahmoud by her father for financial gain. She is told that “she will have a good life with him, and he can find in her an obedient wife,” suggesting that her sole purpose is to be bound in a transactional marriage. However, her dream of true freedom leads to her escape from her husband as she “took [her] little bag, and hurried down the flights of stairs into the street.”
Following this, Firdaus falls into prostitution by coincidence but is quickly drawn to the autonomy and freedom she gains from it. Although prostitution seems common in Egypt, people often demean Firdaus for the life she lives, indicating that society views transactional sex as “not respectable.” In this sense, marriage is portrayed as a socially sanctioned form of prostitution, where both are transactional, but marriage binds a woman to a single partner, making it more “socially acceptable.” For example, Firdaus encounters a policeman as she is wandering the streets who berates her, saying, “You’re a prostitute, and it’s my duty to arrest you […] to clean up the country, and protect respectable families from the likes of you.” The policeman’s assertion that he is protecting "respectable families" underscores the moral double standard at play, where women like Firdaus are vilified for their sexuality, while the patriarchal society that exploits them remains unchallenged.
Firdaus’ subsequent decision to leave prostitution in an attempt to escape this scorn, stating, “I was prepared to do anything to put a stop to the insults that my ears had grown used to hearing, to keep the brazen eyes from running all over my body” illustrates her internal struggle and desire for dignity. Through Firdaus’s shift from marriage to prostitution, El Saadawi argues that although society looks down on sex work, all relationships between men and women in a patriarchal society are essentially transactional, where marriage is a socially sanctioned form. Therefore, the immense disrespect that Firdaus faces for her role as a prostitute serves as a critique of these systems, where marriage and prostitution are similar in their transactional nature.
While Edith Wharton employs a third-person omniscient narrator in The House of Mirth, El Saadawi utilizes a first-person narrator in Women at Point Zero that allows Firdaus to reclaim her voice and assert her identity in a society that has long silenced her. This narrative style is crucial in allowing Firdaus to articulate her defiance against the societal structures that have oppressed her. Specifically, following Firdaus’s harsh realization that marriage and prostitution are essentially the same in nature, she returns to her life as a prostitute for various reasons. She says:
I knew that my profession had been invented by men, and that men were in control of both our worlds, the one on earth, and the one in heaven. That men force women to sell their bodies at a price, and that the lowest-paid body is that of a wife. All women are prostitutes of one kind or another. Because I was intelligent, I preferred to be a free prostitute, rather than an enslaved wife.
This passage offers a powerful critique of current patriarchal systems that dictate and control women’s roles within Egyptian society. Firdaus acknowledges that her role as a prostitute “had been invented by men” and “that men were in control of both our worlds.” This recognition underscores her awareness of the lack of autonomy she holds, whether it's within a marriage or sexual relationship, as she equates the two. Firdaus’ recognition that “all women are prostitutes of one kind or another” serves as a radical critique of how patriarchal societies commodify women, reducing their value to their sexual and reproductive roles. This perspective challenges the dichotomy between a “respectable” wife and a “disgraced” prostitute, suggesting that both are subject to the same underlying economic and power dynamics. Additionally, by asserting that “the lowest paid body is that of a wife,” Firdaus reveals that while all relationships are transactional, marriage is the one in which you have the least freedom and “pay.” This provides direct insight into her reasoning and the sense of agency she asserts in choosing to be “a free prostitute, rather than an enslaved wife.” This choice is representative of her rejection of the passive and subordinate role that society expects her to accept.
However, Firdaus’ freedom is ultimately constrained by the societal context in which she lives. Although she may experience more autonomy as a prostitute than as a wife bound by marriage, the limited avenues available for her to achieve financial stability reveal that she is not truly free within this society. Despite this, by choosing prostitution, Firdaus subverts the social norms and claims control over her own body and fate, similar to the defiance of the status quo shown by Lily Bart in The House of Mirth. In this manner, both Lily Bart and Firdaus are representative of those who challenge the existing systems rather than passively accepting societal norms. Therefore, El Saadawi is making a similar comment to Wharton, that lack of defiance will simply reinforce existing harmful patriarchal structures. This is supported by De Beauvoir’s theory where she argues that if everyone passively accepts existing arranged systems “the dream of a passive success will always persist and so will limit women’s own accomplishments.” El Saadawi suggests that without individuals like Firdaus who dare to challenge the status quo, society will never achieve true equality, serving as a call for action and resistance.
In addition to this call for resistance against harmful systems, El Saadawi presents a broader critique of the consequences faced by those who dare to challenge these systems through the novel's ending. By refusing to show remorse for killing her pimp, even when offered the chance to reduce her sentence, Firdaus asserts her autonomy in the most extreme way possible. She says, “But I don’t want to be released[...]and I want no pardon for my crime. For what you call my crime was no crime.” Through this, Firdaus asserts that she would rather be executed than released back into her restricted society as she believes that what she had done “was no crime,” but rather an act of defiance against exploitation. In choosing death, Firdaus escapes the cycle of exploitation and asserts that she would rather die with her dignity intact than continue living as a tool of a patriarchal society. Her tragic end underscores the brutal reality that challenging deeply entrenched patriarchal structures often comes at a high cost. El Saadawi uses Firdaus's fate to highlight the dangers of resisting these systems, calling for a radical rethinking of these institutions and highlighting the need for a society that values women as individuals rather than commodities.
In the final passage of Woman at Point Zero, the narrator reflects on Firdaus’s execution and the profound impact her life and choices had on those around her, including the narrator herself. The narrator describes how Firdaus’ voice, representing her truth and defiance, continues to “echo in [her] ears, vibrates in [her] head, in the cell, in the prison, in the streets, in the whole world.” Firdaus’ commitment to truth, as “savage” and “simple” as it is, stands in stark contrast to the lies and hypocrisy that pervade society. This contrast highlights Firdaus’ moral clarity and the strength of her resistance against the oppressive systems that sought to control her.
Additionally, the narrator’s admission of shame, stemming from their own life of fear, lies, and conformity, emphasizes the courage Firdaus exhibited in her defiance. While the narrator initially reacts with anger and a desire to “stamp out” the hypocrisy they see, they quickly realize that Firdaus’ resistance is far more profound. Through this, Firdaus is portrayed as a heroic figure, admired not for living a conventional life of success but for her unwavering resistance against the oppressive structures that sought to control her. Her death is not depicted as a defeat but as a powerful assertion of autonomy and defiance. This is encapsulated in Firdaus’ final words: “I knew why they were so afraid of me. I was the only woman who had torn the mask away, and exposed the face of their ugly reality.” At this moment, Firdaus recognizes her strength, understanding that her courage exposed the harsh truths of patriarchal systems and ultimately pushed for change. El Saadawi uses this ending to emphasize that true heroism lies in the courage to resist and challenge unjust systems, inspiring a broader reflection on the necessity of challenging and dismantling harmful societal structures.
The examination of The House of Mirth and Woman at Point Zero reveals a shared critique of the societal structures that commodify women. Despite the vastly different cultural contexts in which these novels are set, the underlying issues of transactional relationships and female subjugation are strikingly similar, reflecting a universal nature of gender-based exploitation. Additionally, the contrast in narrative styles between Wharton’s portrayal of Lily Bart’s internal struggles and El Saadawi’s depiction of the harsh external violence faced by Firdaus highlights the diverse ways in which women experience and resist oppression.
Yet, both narratives converge in their powerful call for change. Wharton’s subtle critique of societal norms through Lily’s internal conflicts and eventual downfall is as forceful as El Saadawi’s explicit condemnation of patriarchal violence through Firdaus’s defiance. Both authors emphasize that these oppressive systems endure because they are passively accepted not only by those who benefit from them but also by those who are subjugated by them. Moreover, both authors, despite their different cultural and narrative approaches, advocate for a radical rethinking of these systems which underscores the universal need for challenging and dismantling patriarchal structures. They both emphasize that true progress can only be achieved when individuals, regardless of their societal roles, begin to question, challenge, and ultimately reject the societal norms that perpetuate inequality. Ultimately, these novels serve as timeless reminders that the fight for gender equality is far from over and both individual defiance and collective action are required for change.
Through these powerful novels, both Wharton and El Saadawi reflect the universality of female oppression while inspiring a broader reflection on the necessity of challenging and changing the systems that sustain it.
Citations provided upon request.
Jaya M. is a 12th-grade student at Mulgrave School. She has been a dedicated dancer for 12 years, using her passion for movement to inspire creativity and discipline. In addition to dance, Jaya takes on leadership roles both inside and outside of school, from guiding peers in academic projects to organizing community initiatives.